LB46-50洋吉

The voice mechanisms of a gibbon were investigated by Nemai and Kelemen (1933) among others. The larynx of the gibbon deviates from the basic plan found in the Pongidae and man, thus reflecting its special phylogenetic position. These authors were impressed with the exceptionally well-differentiated system of double vocal cords (homologous to man’s true and false cords) as well as with animal’s delicate arytenoids cartilages (for the homologous structure and its function in phonation see Fig. 2. 15) ,which indicate an ability to control and adjust the tension of the cords during phonation. The vocal folds themselves differed markedly in their histological structure from those of other apes and from man. The two sets of vocal cords explain the peculiar double tones heard in the calls of living gibbons.
長臂猿的聲音機制是由眾多研究者中的Nemai及Kelemen（1933）研究的。長臂猿的喉頭脫逃了巨猿及人類的基本方案，因此反映了牠們特殊的動植物種類史的位置。這些作家對異常分化良好的雙聲帶系統（與人類真的及人造的聲帶同源）及動物精美的杓狀軟骨；杓狀軟骨在發聲時可以控制及調整聲帶的張力（同源結構及發聲功能見圖2.15 ）有極深的印象。牠們的聲帶在組織學的結構上與其它的猿類及人類有顯著的不同。這兩組的聲帶就可以解釋活長臂猿特有的雙聲調叫聲。
The orangutan’s larynx was examined by the same authors (Nemai and Kelemen, 1929) . In their summary, they state that this ape’s vocal organ is not capable of producing delicately modulated or controlled sounds. They found the superior structures (aditus laryngis) particularly primitive, with a voluminous epiglottis covered by the pendular velum. The arytenoids cartilages were relatively small and most of the cartilaginous material throughout the larynx was more calcified than in man and chimpanzee. Calcification indicates a loss in elasticity of these structures, which should make control of loudness of voice more dependent upon the fluctuating air supply from the lungs. Thus it is probably an impediment in the stabilization of tones. The intrinsic musculature of the larynx was found to be relatively undeveloped and not very strong. The vocal folds themselves were lined with muscle fibers, but the orientation of the fibers was not like that in man.
猩猩的喉頭是由相同的作者（Nemai及Kelemen, 1929）研究。在他們的摘要中，他們說這類猿類的發聲器官沒法產生精美地調整及控制的聲音。他們發現高級結構，特別是原始人的，與大量的會厭軟骨是被擺動的軟顎所覆蓋。杓狀軟骨是相對地小而且大部份的遍佈喉頭的軟骨的材料較人類及黑猩猩的都鈣化地多。鈣化指出了這些應該控制聲音（更依賴由肺部提供之空氣波動）大小的結構彈性的喪失。因此，這或許是聲調穩定的障礙。喉頭本身的肌肉組織被發現是相對地未發展及不是非常強壯的。聲帶本身是由纖維作襯裡，但是，纖維的定位卻不是與人類的一樣。
Kelemen (1948) contributed a histological examination of the chimpanzee’s larynx. The chimpanzee also has a double set of vocal folds, but in contrast to both gibbon and man he can articulate each set independently. However, more air pressure is needed to make the false cords vibrate, and so doubletons are heard only after the chimpanzee’s vocalization has assumed a certain degree of intensity. The chimpanzee has well-developed aryepiglottic folds which allows him to vocalize not only upon expiration but also upon inspiration, which for man is strenuous and unpleasant. In addition to differences in homologous structures, all apes differ from man in that they have a complex system of air sacs and hollow pouches bulging out from the vocal tract which, according to Kleinschmidt (1938) , serve a specialized function during phonation. These structures can be blown up like a balloon, requiring several breaths, perhaps to serve as a reservoir of air supply. The air is expressed from these spaces as in a bagpipe and utilized in phonation (producing a veritable din) without requiring additional respiratory effort.
Kelemen（1948）提供了對黑猩猩喉頭的調查。黑猩猩也有兩組的聲帶，但是與長臂猿及人類不同的是牠可以獨立地用一組發音。然而，讓人造聲帶振動需要更多的空氣壓力，而且雙聲調也只有在黑猩猩的發聲取得某種程度的強度之後才能聽到。黑猩猩有發展良好的杓狀會厭聲帶，那可以讓牠不僅在吸氣時能發音、在吐氣時也能（這對人類來說是費力且另人討厭的）。除了同源結構的差異，所有的猿類跟人類不同的是，牠們有肺泡及凸出於發聲道（根據Kleinschmidt (1938) 是在發聲中具專門的功能）的中空小袋之複雜系統。這些結構可以像氣球一般吹大且需要一些氣息，也許當成空氣供給的儲藏庫。空氣就從這些空間傳遞不需額外呼吸的努力，就如同風笛一般。
It is interesting to note that in a certain sense man’s vocal apparatus is in several respects simpler than that of the great apes. The geometry of the air spaces and fixed resonance chambers is “streamlined”; there is only one set of functional vocal cords; the vocal cords are mounted in the air tunnel in such a way that, when adducted, they can produce sound only (or primarily) on expiration, instead of allowing both inspiratory and expiratory voice; and the epiglottis has moved so far below the pharynx as to allow the air from the larynx to stream freely through both nasal and oral cavities. Notice, however, that it is precisely streamlining and simplification which, in many instances in animal morphology, constitute structural specialization for given behavior; for instance, the reduction of toes in the ungulates or appendages in fish. (Of course, this is not the only method of achieving specialization.)
很有趣的是就某些意義上來說，人類的發聲器官在一些方面比大型猿類來得簡單。空氣空間的幾合學及固定共鳴室是流線型的；只有一組實用的聲帶；聲帶以這樣的方式（當合隴時，他們只能（或主要）在吐氣時產生聲音，而不是允許吸氣及吐氣聲音）鑲嵌在空氣的通道上；且會厭到現在已移到咽頭下方讓從喉頭來的空氣自由地流動通過鼻腔及口腔。然而，就是流線型化及簡單化，在很多動物型態學的例子中，建構了為特定行為的結構特化作用；舉例來說，魚的腳趾簡化成附屬肢體或是蹄狀物。（當然，這並不是唯一達成特化作用的方式。）
There are two additional structural peculiarities of the larynx which favor phonation in man, but in these instances we are unable to produce any comparative data. First, it has been pointed out by Fink and Kirschner (1959), as shown in Fig 2.16 and 2.17, that
“the geometrical configuration of the larynx during phonation . . . is such that the internal surfaces are shaped like a nozzle providing optimum flow conditions during respiration. The exponentially curved surfaces constitute a horn functioning as an acoustic transformer between the infra-laryngeal and supra-laryngeal cavities during phonation.”
有兩個額外的有利於人類發音的喉頭特質，但是在這些例子中，我們無法產生任何可以比較的資料。首先Fink及Kirschner (1959) 指出，見圖2.16及2.17
“在發音時喉頭的幾合配置 . . . 是如此的這內部表面就如同鼻子在呼吸時提供最理想的流動條件這樣一般形塑成。以指數方式彎曲的表面組成了一個在發聲時可以充當上下喉腔間中介的喇叭。”
The exponentially curved walls may serve to reduce the high air pressure generated by the lung by accelerating the flow of air with the least loss of energy and maximum efficiency in excitation of the vibratory organs.
以指數方式彎曲的內壁可以減少由肺部以最少的能量消耗加速空氣的流動及刺激振動器官最大效益所產生的高度空氣壓力。
The other structural peculiarity concerns the vocal cords. A study of the articulation of the arytenoids cartilages and the way in which the vocal ligaments and muscles are attached to it (Fig. 2.18) has revealed that the approximation of the vocal folds during phonation caused the vocal muscles to be twisted as shown in Fig. 2.19. Sonesson (1960) hypothesized that this twist contributes to the firmness and tension of the vocal fold during phonation and thus serves to stabilize pitch and volume.
其它結構特點集中在聲帶上。一個對發音時杓狀軟骨與韌帶與肌肉是如何附著上（見圖2.18）之研究透露了在發聲時聲帶之接近造成發聲肌肉之扭轉，見圖2.19。Sonesson (1960) 假設這種肌肉扭轉提供聲帶在發聲時堅固及張力，因此可以穩定音高及音量。
In Table 2.1 are summarized some of the more commonly occurring speech sounds together with the morphological correlates involved in their production. Anatomical descriptions such as those of the preceding sections tend to be disregarded because it is argued that since subhuman primates have homologous structures, anatomical descriptions tell us nothing about speech. Objections of this kind stem from a misunderstanding of the intention underlying morphological descriptions, The sounds that animals and men make are produced by specific anatomical structures, and thus it would indeed be odd to deny any relationship between two. Anatomical description, insofar as the purpose is not activated by self-interest alone, ultimately achieves the clarification of certain characteristics of sound-making facilities. Unfortunately, because of lack of data, the description is frequently too poor (the present one included) to obtain this ultimate aim satisfactorily. 在表2.1中摘要了些常見的語音及生成時形態上相關聯的東西。解剖上的描述，如同上一部份說的傾向被忽視因為自從次人類之哺乳類有同源之結構，解剖的描述沒有關於言辭的東西可以告訴我們。這種之異議來自於對型態描述的潛在含意的誤解。動物及人類所製造的聲音是由特定的解剖的結構生成的，因此，去否認兩者間的關係確是有點怪。解剖描述，在目的的這個範圍無法單獨被自身興趣活化，最終澄清某些聲音製造機制的特色。不幸地，由於缺乏資料，描述常常很貧乏（包含目前這個）去圓滿地達成最終目標。