It is the influence of muscle tonus upon bone formation that brings this aspect of morphogenesis back to an interaction with the central nervous system. Muscle tonus is, in a sense, the beginning of behavior. Unless tonicity appears in a balanced, centrally regulated sequence, malformations of the outer and inner form of bones and limbs will result (as is indeed encountered in a number of well-known clinical conditions, for example, clubfoot deformities). Once more we see how bones, nerves, muscles, and behavior evolve as an organic entity. 就是肌肉強直性對骨骼形成的影響把形態發生的觀點拉回到與中央神經系統的互動中。肌肉強直性是、就某種意義來說、行為的開端。除非身體組織之正常官能出現在協調的、中央條理化的次序，不然骨骼與四肢外面與裡面形態的畸形就會產生（確實在多數眾所皆知臨床症狀中遇過、例如、畸形足）。我們再一次看到了骨骼、神經、肌肉、與行為是如何發展成有組織的實體。(2) The Embryology of Behavior Why should the metabolic and mechanical influences upon growth be of interest to the behaviorist? For all we know, this is an irrelevant detail of the constructional history of the organism that need not concern the student of behavior. We have had some indication, however, that some primitive precursor of behavior, particularly muscle tonus, is an important factor for at least one aspect of skeletal development. This raises the general question of the embryological history of behavior.(2) 行為的胚胎學 為何新陳代謝與物理的對生長的影響讓行為學家感興趣呢？就我們所知、這是不相關的並不會影響行為學者有機體建造由來的細節。然而，有些徵兆顯示一些行為的原始先驅，特別是肌肉強直性，至少是骨骼發展其中一方面的重要因素。這提出行為胚胎由來的普遍問題。 A complete survey of behavioral studies in prenatal development was prepared by Carmichael (1954) and should be consulted for details. In addition to observations on larval behavior in amphibians and pre-hatching behavior in chick embryos, an impressive amount of information exists on prenatal behavior in mammals, ranging from the primitive opossum to human fetuses. There is unanimity among observers that sensory irritability and motor activities come into play as soon as tissues have the differentiation and basic morphology which is characteristic of a given animal. In most mammals this tends to occur roughly toward the end of the first trimester of gestation. Much of the present-day thinking in this connection goes back to the pioneering work of Coghill (1929). 產前發展的行為研究之完整概論是由Carmichael所準備的且應該被當成細節的參考。除對兩棲動物的幼體行為及小孩胚胎孵化前的行為之觀察外，也有大量的令人印象深刻的哺乳類產前行為的資訊、從負鼠分佈到人類胎兒。觀察者皆一致同意對組織一有區分且有已知動物特色的基本的形態學，感覺的過敏性及運動的活動就會開始起作用。在大多數的哺乳類中，這大約傾向發生在接進懷孕期的前三個月底時。當今對此大多數的想法可以追溯至Coghill先導之研究。 Coghill observed the flexions and, later, the undulating movements in the trunk of the larval amlystoma, which are the behavioral primordium of the mature swimming movements. He demonstrated anatomically that the growth of the nervous system is directly correlated with the emergence of behavior, and he was able to explain certain features of the development of swimming movements (for example, that the movements of the limbs are at first strictly correlated with the gross movements of the trunk and only later assume a degree of independence) on strictly neuro-anatomic grounds. Coghill’s over-all conclusions were that behavior (in the animals studied by him and his students) emerged as an integrated but undifferentiated whole involving the entire animal from the start. With further development, a process of individuation of patterns appears which is manifested by the emergence of more specific and more detailed behavioral sequences; but these sequences were considered by him as parts of the behavioral schema as a whole which is potentially present from the beginning.
Coghill觀察了是幼蠑螈軀幹的彎曲部份及波動的活動（這是成熟游泳活動的行為原基）。他以解剖展示神經系統的發展與行為的出現是直接相關的，而且他在嚴格地神經解剖的基礎下能解釋某些游泳活動發展的特色（舉例來說，在一開始時，肢的活動跟軀幹的總活動是嚴格相關的，晚一點時才能取得獨立的程度）。Coghill全部的結論（他及他的學生所研究的動物）是以合併但是無差別的全體（從一開始時就牽涉了整個動物）出現。藉由更特殊的及更詳細的行為次序的出現讓個體化的樣本過程與進一步的發展顯露出來，但是這些次序他認為是行為概要（是從一開始就潛在呈現的全體）的一部份。 The concept of the integrated primordial whole, present from the beginning, has not been accepted by all embryologists (Kuo, 1939). Windle (1950) and his group, for instance, had reservations on this point; these workers tended to stress the developmental assembly of initially unrelated reflexes in to new and more complex patterns of coordination such as locomotion or feeding. When prenatal development of higher animals in considered, the controversy over the assembly view as against the differentiation view is quite academic. A survey of behavior embryology today leads to the following general conclusions.
從一開始就呈現的合併的原始全體這個概念並沒有被全部的胚胎學者接受（郭, 1939）。Windle（1950）及他的團體，舉例來說，對這點仍有保留；這些人員傾向強調從一開始不相關的反射作用發展裝配成新的及更複雜的協調樣本，像是移動或是餵養。當高等動物的產前發展被考慮時，反對分化觀點的裝配觀點是相當學術的。今日行為胚胎學的調查帶出了以下之一般結論。 First, the order in the emergence of sensory and motor capacities, reflexes, and spontaneous motoric events is constant and predictable for any given species. The sequence of events is not dependent upon experience.
第一，知覺的及運動能力、反射作用、及自發的運動事件之出現順序對任何特定之種類來說是不變及可預測的。事件的次序並不依賴經驗。 Second, the embryological emergence of behavior in mammals cannot be characterized by on simple scheme such as gradual differentiation of a whole or assembly of independently arising component reflexes. Although some aspects of behavior do emerge as undifferentiated patterns with subsequent individuation (for instance, the movements or limbs and digits and, to some extent, of head and trunk), other aspects of behavior are best regarded as a lawful but gradual integration of reflexes that can be observed to function independently before the total integration takes place. The natural history of gait in man is an example of the latter condition. Steeping movements and righting reflexes are present long before the infant is capable of coordinating them for competent stance or locomotion. Coronios (1933) described many similar examples in the course of his observations on the embryological development of behavior in the cat. But in addition to individuation and assembly, we may observe other types of reflex histories that fit neither of these two schemes. For instance, some motor reactions, such as the tonic neck reflex in man, emerge at a specific time only to disappear again in the course of further development. Other reflexes undergo certain transformations in function and appearance, such as infantile startle reactions, whereas still other types of reflexes may merely be suppressed by the appearance of inhibitory mechanisms, but can reappear if the inhibitory mechanisms are abolished; for instance, sucking and rooting reflexes may be seen in patients with advanced degenerative diseases affecting the cerebral cortex, in particular. The embryology of human behavior has been studied by Hooker (1952) and Humphrey (1964) who have also reviewed the recent literature on the subject. In man, certain synergisms, such as grasping, have been observed as early as the eleventh gestational week. After completion of the first trimester, that is , by the fourteenth week, most reflexes seem to be present that can also be observed in the neonate born at term.
第二，在胚胎學上，哺乳類行為的出現可以用一個簡單計劃來描述，像是一個全體的逐步分化或是獨立上升的反射作用的構成要素之裝配。雖然行為的一些方面的確是跟著隨後的個體化以分化的模式出現（舉例來說，肢及手指或足趾的移動而且，就某種程度來說，頭及驅幹的活動），其它行為的方面最好視為合法但是反射作用（觀察到可以在合併完成前獨立作用）的逐漸合併。人類步伐的自然歷史是後者條件的例子。步行移動及正確的反射作用在嬰兒為了充份地站立或運動的需要有能力去協調它們很久之前就出現了。在Coronois（1933）對貓的胚胎學行為發展觀察過程中，他描述了許多相似的例子。但是除了個體化及裝配外，我們能觀察其它無法符合這兩種模式的反射作用種類的歷史。舉例來說，有一些動作反應，像是人類在特定時間出現、只在進一步發展過程中再次消失的強直性頸反射。其它的反射作用在功能及外觀上經歷某種程度的轉化，像是嬰兒的驚嚇反應，而其它的反射也許僅僅被抑制機制的出現所壓制，但是如果抑制機制廢除，就能再出現；舉例來說，尤其可以在患有影響大腦皮層的高級退化疾病之病人中看到吸吮及尋乳反射。重新探討這個主題的文獻的Hooker (1952) 及Humphrey (1964) 研究了人類行為胚胎學。人類的某些連合作用，像是抓，最快在懷孕十一週時就會看到。在嬰兒出生到期可觀察到的反射，大部份的似乎在最先的三個月完成後、即十四週前就會呈現。 Third, species differ considerably in the order of emergence of spontaneous behavior. In most birds, for instance, the embryo may be seen to move before there is any sign of sensory reactivity. In mammals, however, sensory reactivity is very early, and in many species, including man, spontaneous behavior does not become prominent until after peripheral sensitivities have developed. There are, however, enough exceptions to this to discredit the notion that fetal behavior is the result of learning.
第三，物種在自然的舉止出現的順序上有相當大的不同。大部份的鳥，舉例來說，在有任何知覺反應的徵兆前就可以見到胚胎移動。然而，哺乳類的知覺反應是非常早地，且在大部份的物種中、包含人類，直到外周敏感度發展後，自然的舉止才變得比較重要。但是，除了這還是有足夠的例外去質疑胎兒的行為是學習的結果的這個概念。
The entire developmental process is of a physiological nature. In the earliest stages those metabolic events that have to do with cell division and tissue differentiation are most predominant. With the emergence of tissues differentiated into bone, muscle, and nerves, physiological interactions begin to manifest themselves as mechanical, motor events in addition to the biochemical events. Coordination emerges together with morphology, and a matrix for the animal’s future behavioral repertoire is developed, grows and develops into complex synergisms regardless of the “use” the individual will make of it in postnatal or mature life. This is not to imply that the habits of an individual at birth are so predetermined as to dominate completely his adult habits. Many modifications occur after birth in most vertebrates, but the scope of modifiability is always limited by genetic and prenatal events.這整個的發展過程有生理的本質。在最初的階段，那些跟細胞分裂及組織分化有關的新陳代謝的事件是最顯著的。隨著組織分化成骨骼、肌肉、及神經，生理的互動除了以生物化學的事件顯露之外，也開始以物理的及運動的事件顯露。協調與形態學一起出現，且不管個體在出生後或是成熟期如何使用，動物未來行為的全部功能之母體形成、成長及發展成複雜連合作用。這並不暗指個體出生時的習性如此預先確定以至於完全支配成年的習性。大部份的脊椎動物在出生後發生修改，但是修改的範圍總是受限於基因及產前的事件。
vocabulary
tonus (肌肉)強直性
morphogenis 1.形態發生 2.器官發生
tonicity 1.身體組織之正常官能 2.強壯 3.(肌肉)強直性
malformation 畸形; 殘廢
clubfoot 彎腳; 畸形足
deformity 畸形狀態
embryology 胚胎學
metabolic 變化的; 新陳代謝的
precusor 前導, 先驅, 前輩, 前兆
prenatal 產前的; 出生之前的, 胎兒期的
amphibian 兩棲動物
hatch 孵出
chick 小孩
opossum 負鼠
fetus 胎; (三個月後的)胎兒
unanimity 同意; 全體一致, 一致同意
trimester 三個月
gestation 懷孕; 懷孕期
undulating 波浪起伏的; 波浪形的
anatomically 解剖學上; 結構上
primordium 原基
locomotion 運動, 移動, 旅行
gait 步伐, 步態
infantile 幼稚的; 嬰兒的
degenerative 退化的; 變質的
synergism (各種藥物的)連合作用
neonate (未滿月的)嬰兒
fetal 胎兒的; 胎的
postnatal 產後的; 出生後的
vertebrate 脊椎動物
2008年10月29日 星期三
LB75-77洋吉
I. AIM OF PHYSIOLOGICAL DISCUSSIONS IN THIS MONOGRAPH
There is no dearth of monographs on the physiology of speech and language (Ranke and Lullies, 1953; Luchsinger and Arnold, 1959; v.d. Berg, 1962). These are comprehensive treatments on the manner in which voice and speech are produced, the acoustics of speech sounds, speech perception, and on neurophysiological correlates. This chapter is not a digest or survey of this material. Instead, we shall concentrate on a few aspects of speech and language selected to illuminate a specific thesis.
I.在此篇論文中，生理學上討論的目的
對於言詞與語言的生理學論文不缺乏。對聲音及言詞的生成方式，語言聲音的特質，言詞感知，及神經生理相關的東西有廣泛的論述。本章並不是這些資料的整理或概括論述。反而，我們應該全神貫住在被選來闡明特定論文言詞的一些對於言詞及語言的觀點上。
Every species has a characteristic way of life, and there are invariably specific behavior patterns that enable it to exploit its own ecological niche. These behavioral peculiarities must be reflected in the animal’s physical constitution, particularly in specializations of physiological processes. Digestive processes must undergo modifications to enable one animal to subsist on cadavers, another on plankton, and still another on either a vegetable or a meat diet. Tolerance for high or low temperature or variations in temperature must develop. Sensory processes must be refined to enable members of one species to detect its own mates or to guard against approaching enemies. Specialized protective mechanisms and structural peculiarities are evolved. These may be so effective against the predatory habits of larger carnivores that the animal may have no further need for fast locomotion which, in turn, might have new repercussion on physiological readjustments and eventually result in very sluggish creatures.
每個物種有其特有的生活方式，而且總是有特有的行為典型讓他們去開發他們自己的生態利基。這些行為的特質必須反應在動物的身體組成方式，特別是在生理上特化作用的過程。消化過成必須經過調整修改讓動物在屍體、浮游生物、蔬菜或肉的飲食下生存下來。對高低溫的或溫度變化的忍受必須形成。知覺的過程必須昇華讓某個物種的成員去發現他們的配偶或是去對抗接近的天敵。專門的保護機制及結構特質發展。這些或許是有效的去對抗沒有快速移動需要的食肉動物，這些食肉動物也許有新的在生理上重新調整的影響且最後就變成懶散的動物了。
A species’ successful competition for the occupation of a niche does, in fact, rest entirely on physiological and morphological adaptations. The species can defend its position, so to speak, because its unique physiological specializations and adaptations enable it to exploit a particular environmental circumstance better than its competitors. Therefore, species-specific behavior patterns must necessarily have some peculiar physiological correlates. This is even true of those behavioral “useful in the animal’s struggle for survival” (as perhaps in the case of the extremely elaborate ritualized behavior and display patterns of certain birds).
物種對生存利基之成功的競爭、事實上、完全依賴生理與形態之改變。這些物種能保護他們的位置、可以說、因為他們獨一無二的生理特化作用及改變讓他們在開發特殊的環境時，比競爭者更具優勢。所以，物種特有的行為模式必需有些獨特的生理上的相關聯的東西。那些明顯無法被稱為發展（動物對生存奮鬥的有用發展）的動物特質甚至是真的。（也許在非常詳盡的儀式行為及某些鳥表現的模式）
Man is not the only vertebrate that makes noises for communicative purposes. But the acoustic nature, the mode of production, and the ethological variables of man’s communicative behavior are highly characteristic for the species. Ideally, we would like to follow a strategy similar to Chapter Two and compare physiological correlates of man’s behavior with homologous ones in other species. But this is impossible, partly because of lack of data, and partly because of the incomparability of speech with other animal noises (See Chapter Six). Instead, our aim will be to show how dependent speech- and language-production are on specific physiological propensities (demonstrable or inferrable). In this light, the universal, that is, supracultural, features of language will appear to be inextricably interwined with physiological peculiarities. Whether these peculiarities are specializations evolved by our species only, we cannot say with certainty, but the practical failure of our attempts to train closely related species to utter intelligible words, to use sentences meaningfully, or even to understand sentences out of context makes such an assumption reasonable.
人類並不是唯一為了溝通目的製造聲響的脊椎動物。但是，聲音的本質、生成的形式、人類溝通行為的動物行為變數是這個物種高度特有的。理想上，我們跟從第二章的策略且比較把人類行為的生理上的相關東西跟其它物種相對應的作個比較。但是這是不可能的，一部份是因為資料不足，一部份是因為人類言詞跟動物聲音的不一致（看第六章）。反而，我們的目標是顯示依賴的言詞及語言生成是如何在特定的生理傾向（可論證的與能推理的）。在這種見解下，語言的普遍特性似乎逃不掉地跟生理特質糾結。不管這些特性跟特化作用是否只有在我們物種發展，我們無法確定地說，但是我們嘗試訓練相近的物種去講可理解的言詞，有意義地使用句子，甚至是在上下文之外理解句子。這些實際上的失敗使這樣的假設合理化。
vocabulary
subsist 活下去, 維持生活
cadaver 屍首
plankton (總稱)浮游生物
predatory 食肉的
locomotion 運動, 移動
sluggish 不大想動的, 懶散的
homologous 同源的; 同型, 同屬例
ritualize (使)儀式化; (使)奉行儀式
propensity 傾向, 習性
inextricably 逃不掉地
There is no dearth of monographs on the physiology of speech and language (Ranke and Lullies, 1953; Luchsinger and Arnold, 1959; v.d. Berg, 1962). These are comprehensive treatments on the manner in which voice and speech are produced, the acoustics of speech sounds, speech perception, and on neurophysiological correlates. This chapter is not a digest or survey of this material. Instead, we shall concentrate on a few aspects of speech and language selected to illuminate a specific thesis.
I.在此篇論文中，生理學上討論的目的
對於言詞與語言的生理學論文不缺乏。對聲音及言詞的生成方式，語言聲音的特質，言詞感知，及神經生理相關的東西有廣泛的論述。本章並不是這些資料的整理或概括論述。反而，我們應該全神貫住在被選來闡明特定論文言詞的一些對於言詞及語言的觀點上。
Every species has a characteristic way of life, and there are invariably specific behavior patterns that enable it to exploit its own ecological niche. These behavioral peculiarities must be reflected in the animal’s physical constitution, particularly in specializations of physiological processes. Digestive processes must undergo modifications to enable one animal to subsist on cadavers, another on plankton, and still another on either a vegetable or a meat diet. Tolerance for high or low temperature or variations in temperature must develop. Sensory processes must be refined to enable members of one species to detect its own mates or to guard against approaching enemies. Specialized protective mechanisms and structural peculiarities are evolved. These may be so effective against the predatory habits of larger carnivores that the animal may have no further need for fast locomotion which, in turn, might have new repercussion on physiological readjustments and eventually result in very sluggish creatures.
每個物種有其特有的生活方式，而且總是有特有的行為典型讓他們去開發他們自己的生態利基。這些行為的特質必須反應在動物的身體組成方式，特別是在生理上特化作用的過程。消化過成必須經過調整修改讓動物在屍體、浮游生物、蔬菜或肉的飲食下生存下來。對高低溫的或溫度變化的忍受必須形成。知覺的過程必須昇華讓某個物種的成員去發現他們的配偶或是去對抗接近的天敵。專門的保護機制及結構特質發展。這些或許是有效的去對抗沒有快速移動需要的食肉動物，這些食肉動物也許有新的在生理上重新調整的影響且最後就變成懶散的動物了。
A species’ successful competition for the occupation of a niche does, in fact, rest entirely on physiological and morphological adaptations. The species can defend its position, so to speak, because its unique physiological specializations and adaptations enable it to exploit a particular environmental circumstance better than its competitors. Therefore, species-specific behavior patterns must necessarily have some peculiar physiological correlates. This is even true of those behavioral “useful in the animal’s struggle for survival” (as perhaps in the case of the extremely elaborate ritualized behavior and display patterns of certain birds).
物種對生存利基之成功的競爭、事實上、完全依賴生理與形態之改變。這些物種能保護他們的位置、可以說、因為他們獨一無二的生理特化作用及改變讓他們在開發特殊的環境時，比競爭者更具優勢。所以，物種特有的行為模式必需有些獨特的生理上的相關聯的東西。那些明顯無法被稱為發展（動物對生存奮鬥的有用發展）的動物特質甚至是真的。（也許在非常詳盡的儀式行為及某些鳥表現的模式）
Man is not the only vertebrate that makes noises for communicative purposes. But the acoustic nature, the mode of production, and the ethological variables of man’s communicative behavior are highly characteristic for the species. Ideally, we would like to follow a strategy similar to Chapter Two and compare physiological correlates of man’s behavior with homologous ones in other species. But this is impossible, partly because of lack of data, and partly because of the incomparability of speech with other animal noises (See Chapter Six). Instead, our aim will be to show how dependent speech- and language-production are on specific physiological propensities (demonstrable or inferrable). In this light, the universal, that is, supracultural, features of language will appear to be inextricably interwined with physiological peculiarities. Whether these peculiarities are specializations evolved by our species only, we cannot say with certainty, but the practical failure of our attempts to train closely related species to utter intelligible words, to use sentences meaningfully, or even to understand sentences out of context makes such an assumption reasonable.
人類並不是唯一為了溝通目的製造聲響的脊椎動物。但是，聲音的本質、生成的形式、人類溝通行為的動物行為變數是這個物種高度特有的。理想上，我們跟從第二章的策略且比較把人類行為的生理上的相關東西跟其它物種相對應的作個比較。但是這是不可能的，一部份是因為資料不足，一部份是因為人類言詞跟動物聲音的不一致（看第六章）。反而，我們的目標是顯示依賴的言詞及語言生成是如何在特定的生理傾向（可論證的與能推理的）。在這種見解下，語言的普遍特性似乎逃不掉地跟生理特質糾結。不管這些特性跟特化作用是否只有在我們物種發展，我們無法確定地說，但是我們嘗試訓練相近的物種去講可理解的言詞，有意義地使用句子，甚至是在上下文之外理解句子。這些實際上的失敗使這樣的假設合理化。
vocabulary
subsist 活下去, 維持生活
cadaver 屍首
plankton (總稱)浮游生物
predatory 食肉的
locomotion 運動, 移動
sluggish 不大想動的, 懶散的
homologous 同源的; 同型, 同屬例
ritualize (使)儀式化; (使)奉行儀式
propensity 傾向, 習性
inextricably 逃不掉地
2008年9月24日 星期三
LB375-377洋吉
(3) Certain specializations in peripheral anatomy and physiology account for some of the universal features of natural languages, but the description of these human peculiarities does not constitute an explanation for the phylogenetic development of language. During the evolutionary history of the species form function and behavior have interacted adaptively, but none of these aspects may be regarded as the ”cause” of the other. Today, mastery of language by an individual may be accomplished despite severe peripheral anomalies, indicating that cerebral function is now the determining factor for language behavior as we know it in contemporary man. This, however, does not necessarily reflect the evolutionary sequence of development events.某些在生理及神經的特化作用可以解釋一些自然語言的普遍特性。但是，對人類特性的描述並無法解釋語言種類發展史。在物種外型發展的過程中，功能與行為是互相影響及適應的。但是，兩者並沒有所謂的因果關係。現今，除了嚴重的神經異常外，人類對語言的熟練指出了大腦的功能才是目前在語言行為中具有決定性的因素，就如同身為當代人知道般。不過，這些並無法反映語言的發展過程。(4) The biological properties of the human form of cognition set strict limits to the range of possibilities for variations in natural languages. The forms and modes of categorization, the capacity for extracting similarities from physical stimulus configuration or from classes of deeper structural schemata, and the operating characteristics of the data-processing machinery of the brain (for example, time-limitations on the rate of input, resolution-power for the analysis of intertwined patterns such as nested dependencies, limits of storage capacities for data that must be processed simultaneously, etc.) are powerful factors that determine a peculiar type of form for language. Within the limits set, however, there are infinitely many variations possible. Thus the outer form of languages may vary with relatively great freedom, whereas the underlying type remains constant.人類外型的生物特性及認知嚴格限制了自然語言變異的可能性。對形式及模式的分類，從身體的刺激配置及多種的深層結構找相似性的能力，大腦資料處理裝置的操作特性 (像是，輸入速度的時間限制，對糾纏樣式的分析像是，一群依靠，的解決能力，對資料儲存空間的限制及資料必需同時處理等等)是決定特殊語言形式的有力因素。雖有限制，但是，語言還是有無限多的變益可能。所以語言的外部形式就有相對大的變化自由，然而基底種類是不變的。(5) The implication of (1) and (2) is that the existence of our cognitive processes entails a potential for language. It is a capacity for a communication system that must necessarily be of one specific type. This basic capacity develops ontogenetically in the course of physical maturation; however, certain environmental conditions also must be present to make it possible for language to unfold. Maturation brings cognitive processes to a state that we may call language-readiness. The organism now requires certain raw materials from which it can shape building blocks for his own language development. The situation is somewhat analogous to the relationship between nourishment and growth. The food that the growing individual takes in as architectural raw material must be chemically broken down and reconstituted before it may enter the synthesis that produces tissues and organs. The information on how the organs are to be structured does not come in the food but is latent in the individual’s own cellular components. The raw material for the individual’s language synthesis is the language synthesis is the language spoken by the adults surrounding the child. The presence of raw material seems to function like a releaser for the developmental language synthesizing process. The course of language-unfolding is quite strictly prescribed through the unique maturational path traversed by cognition, and thus we may say language-readiness is a state of latent language structure. The unfolding of language is a process of actualization in which latent structure is transformed into realized structure. The actualization of latent structure to realized structure is to give the underlying cognitively determined type a concrete form.*(1)跟(2)的言外之意就是我們認知過程的存在entail語言的可能性。那個溝通功能的能力必需是一種特殊的種類。基本的能力是隨著個體的成熟而發展的。但是某些環境條件必需存在，語言才會出現。個體的成熟讓認知過程進入了我們稱之為語言準備就緒的狀態。有機組織現在需要某些生的資料，從這些生的資料就可以型塑語言發展的建設街區。這個情況就好像是營養跟成長的關係一樣。成長中的個體攝取的食物，在建築的生資料進入產生組織跟器官的合成作用前，必需經過化學分解且重新組織。器官如何建構的資訊並不是來自於食物，而是來自於個體潛在的細胞組成的成份。供個體語言合成的生資料來自於大人們在小孩身邊說的語言。生資料似乎在語言發展過程中扮演了釋放者的角色。語言顯露的過程相當嚴格受限於成熟過程及認知交錯的。所以我們說語言準備就續是潛在語言結構的一個狀態。語言顯露的過程就是個體潛在的結構變成真的結構的實現過程。在這實現過程中就是去給基底認知的決定種類一個具體的型態。(6) The actualization process is not the same as “beginning to say things.” In fact, it may be independent from certain restraints that are attending upon the capacity for making given responses. Actualization may take place even if responses are peripherally blocked; in this case actualization is demonstrable only through signs of understanding language. In cases where the proper raw material for language synthesis cannot be made available to the growing child (as in the deaf) ,the latent structure fails to become actualized either temporarily or permanently.這個實現過程跟開始說東西是不同的。事實上，它也許是獨立於某些約束措施之外，那些約束措施照料產生特定回應的能力。實現也會發生即使回應受到外圍封阻，在上述之案例，實現可以藉由可理解的語言符號展現的。如果說小孩無法得到供語言合成的生資料（好比說是聾子），那麼潛浮結構就會短暫地或永久地無法實現了。(7) The maturation of cognitive processes comes about through progressive differentiation.Physiological (and, therefore, cognitive) functions assume characteristics and specificities much the way cells and tissues do during ontogeny. Organs do not suddenly begin to function out of a state of silence, but every function in the mature individual is a derivative of embryologically earlier types of function. Although the primitive functions may often be different from the mature ones, we cannot say just when a later or derived process had its beginning. If language is an aspect of a fundamental, biologically determined process, it is not scientifically profitable to look for a cause of language development in the growing child just as we do not look for a cause for the development of his ears. It might be more fruitful to think of maturation, including growth and the development of behavior such as language, as the traversing of highly unstable states; the disequilibrium of one leads to rearrangements that bring about new disequilibria, producing further rearrangements, and so on until relative stability, known as maturity, is reached. Language-readiness is an example of such a state of disequilibrium during which the mind creates a place into which the building blocks of language may fit.
(7) 認知過程的成熟是由漸近的變異中發生的。生理的（且，所以，認知的）功能取得特色及具體性的方式就如同個體發生中細胞及組織作的一樣。器官不會突然從無聲狀態開始作用，但成熟個體的每個功能是胚胎學上功能的早期型態引出物。雖然原始的功能也許會跟成熟的不同，我們不能僅是說較晚的或是衍生的過程有它的開始。假若語言是根本的生物學地決定過程，去看成長中小孩語言發展的成因沒有科學上地好處，就如同我們不會去找尋他耳朵發展的成因一般。去想想成熟，包含生長及行為的發展就像語言，語言是由高度不穩定的狀態交叉形成；不均衡然後重置，重置之後的不均衡在重置，反複作用後到達相對的穩定，就是我們所知的成熟。語言準備就緒是一種不均衡狀態的例子；在不均衡期間，腦袋會創造空間讓語言的建築材料填入。(8) The disequilibrium state called language-readiness is of limited duration. It begins around two and declines with cerebral maturation in the early teens. At this time, apparently a steady state is reached, and cognitive processes are firmly structured, the capacity for primary language synthesis is lost, and cerebral reorganization of functions is no longer possible.
(8) 稱作語言準備就緒的不穩定狀態是有時間限制的。它大約從兩歲開始到隨著大腦成熟逐漸衰退到早青春期。在此時，顯然地已經達到了穩定的狀態，而且認知過程堅固地建造好了，主要合成語言的能力已喪失，且大腦功能的改組已不再可能。 (9) The language potential and the latent structure may be assumed to be replicated in every healthy human being because they are consequence of human-specific cognitive processes and a human-specific course of maturation. In other words, universal grammar is of a unique type, common to all men, and it is entirely the by-product of peculiar modes of cognition based upon the biological constitution of individual. This notion of replication, which is a cornerstone of the present theory, also leads us to assume that the actualization process from latent to realized structure is universal because of replicated sequences of similar states of disequilibrium, and there is evidence for this assumption in the regularity of language-acquisition strategies discussed in Chapters Four and Seven.
(9) 語言的可能性及潛在結構也許在每個健康的人上是可以複製的，因為他們是人類特有的認知過成及人類特有的成熟過程的結果。為當今理論基石的複製的概念也讓我們知道從潛在結構到實際結構的實現是普遍的，因為相似的不均衡狀態的複制次序。而且還有其它關於這個假設的證據就是在第四及第五章討論的語言習得策略的一制性。 (10) Because latent structure is replicated in every child and because all languages must have an inner form of identical type (although an infinity of variations is possible) , every child may learn any language with equal ease. The realized structure or outer form of the language that surrounds the growing child serves as mold upon which the form of child’s own realized structure is modeled. The maneuver is possible only because all languages are so constructed as to conform to the stringent requirements imposed upon them by cerebral language-data processing mechanisms. Insistence upon universal, underlying identity of type in all languages may be difficult to understand in the face of difference in rules of syntax and divergences. This puzzle is solved by considering the remarkable freedom allowed individual speakers to make creative and novel use of word-meanings, to reclassify words into various syntactic categories, and to take creative freedoms with rules of syntax. All aspects of outer form or realized structure are in a state of fluidity (of relatively high viscosity）indicating that it is our ”mode of calculating with categories” that is universal, but the categories themselves are not fixed nor the particular choice of the many possible operations.
(10) 因為潛在結構在每個小孩都複製了且所有語言必需有相同種類的內在形式（僅管可能有無限的變異），每個小孩都可以一樣簡單地習得語言。在成長中小孩身邊的語言的實際結構或是外在形式可以作為形塑小孩自身習際結構的模子。只有當語言是按照大腦資料處理機制的迫切要求去建構的，這個策略才有可能。對所有語言型態的普遍及潛在特性，若從句法規則的不同及語義的分岐去看的話可能會很難理解。考慮人類可以大量自由地使用創造性及新奇的字義而且也可以對句法類別重新分類，更可以創造性地使用句法規則解決了疑惑。外在形式及實際結構的所有方面是在一個流動的狀態（有相對的高黏性）指出了就是我們的普遍計算種類的模式而不是種類本身是固定的，也不是許多可能操作中的特定一個。
(11) The raw material from which the individual synthesizes building blocks for his own language development cannot be the cause of the developing structure as evidenced by the autochthonous beginnings in the infant’s language acquisition. Primitive stages of language are simply too different from adult language to be regarded as a direct mirroring of the input. Nor is there any evidence that the adults surrounding the child are the causative or shaping agents that determine language onset or his course of development (see discussion of need as explanation in Chapter Four and of language teaching in Chapter Seven). Purposiveness cannot, logically, be the mainspring for language development.
(11) 個人為了他本身的語言發展從生資料中合成建築塊並不能被當成發展中結構的原因，由嬰兒的語言習得中土生土長的開端可以得證。語言的早期階段跟成人語言是很不相同的，這被視為是輸入的直接反映。沒有任何證據可以說明在小孩身邊的成人扮演決定語言的開始或發展過程之成因或是塑造的角色（見第四章對需要的討論及第七章對語言教學的討論）。目的性在邏輯上不能當成語言發展的主要動力。
* This formulation might be regarded as the biological counterpart to what grammarians have for centuries called universal and particular grammar. Latent structure is responsible for the general type of all features of universal grammar; realized structure is responsible both for the peculiarities of any given statement as well as those aspects that are unique to the grammar of a given natural language.
vocabulary
peculiarity 特性, 特質
phylogenetic 動植物種類史的
schemata 輪廓, 概要, 略圖
ontogeny 個體發生
embryology 胚胎學
autochthonous 土著的, 土生土長的
(7) 認知過程的成熟是由漸近的變異中發生的。生理的（且，所以，認知的）功能取得特色及具體性的方式就如同個體發生中細胞及組織作的一樣。器官不會突然從無聲狀態開始作用，但成熟個體的每個功能是胚胎學上功能的早期型態引出物。雖然原始的功能也許會跟成熟的不同，我們不能僅是說較晚的或是衍生的過程有它的開始。假若語言是根本的生物學地決定過程，去看成長中小孩語言發展的成因沒有科學上地好處，就如同我們不會去找尋他耳朵發展的成因一般。去想想成熟，包含生長及行為的發展就像語言，語言是由高度不穩定的狀態交叉形成；不均衡然後重置，重置之後的不均衡在重置，反複作用後到達相對的穩定，就是我們所知的成熟。語言準備就緒是一種不均衡狀態的例子；在不均衡期間，腦袋會創造空間讓語言的建築材料填入。(8) The disequilibrium state called language-readiness is of limited duration. It begins around two and declines with cerebral maturation in the early teens. At this time, apparently a steady state is reached, and cognitive processes are firmly structured, the capacity for primary language synthesis is lost, and cerebral reorganization of functions is no longer possible.
(8) 稱作語言準備就緒的不穩定狀態是有時間限制的。它大約從兩歲開始到隨著大腦成熟逐漸衰退到早青春期。在此時，顯然地已經達到了穩定的狀態，而且認知過程堅固地建造好了，主要合成語言的能力已喪失，且大腦功能的改組已不再可能。 (9) The language potential and the latent structure may be assumed to be replicated in every healthy human being because they are consequence of human-specific cognitive processes and a human-specific course of maturation. In other words, universal grammar is of a unique type, common to all men, and it is entirely the by-product of peculiar modes of cognition based upon the biological constitution of individual. This notion of replication, which is a cornerstone of the present theory, also leads us to assume that the actualization process from latent to realized structure is universal because of replicated sequences of similar states of disequilibrium, and there is evidence for this assumption in the regularity of language-acquisition strategies discussed in Chapters Four and Seven.
(9) 語言的可能性及潛在結構也許在每個健康的人上是可以複製的，因為他們是人類特有的認知過成及人類特有的成熟過程的結果。為當今理論基石的複製的概念也讓我們知道從潛在結構到實際結構的實現是普遍的，因為相似的不均衡狀態的複制次序。而且還有其它關於這個假設的證據就是在第四及第五章討論的語言習得策略的一制性。 (10) Because latent structure is replicated in every child and because all languages must have an inner form of identical type (although an infinity of variations is possible) , every child may learn any language with equal ease. The realized structure or outer form of the language that surrounds the growing child serves as mold upon which the form of child’s own realized structure is modeled. The maneuver is possible only because all languages are so constructed as to conform to the stringent requirements imposed upon them by cerebral language-data processing mechanisms. Insistence upon universal, underlying identity of type in all languages may be difficult to understand in the face of difference in rules of syntax and divergences. This puzzle is solved by considering the remarkable freedom allowed individual speakers to make creative and novel use of word-meanings, to reclassify words into various syntactic categories, and to take creative freedoms with rules of syntax. All aspects of outer form or realized structure are in a state of fluidity (of relatively high viscosity）indicating that it is our ”mode of calculating with categories” that is universal, but the categories themselves are not fixed nor the particular choice of the many possible operations.
(10) 因為潛在結構在每個小孩都複製了且所有語言必需有相同種類的內在形式（僅管可能有無限的變異），每個小孩都可以一樣簡單地習得語言。在成長中小孩身邊的語言的實際結構或是外在形式可以作為形塑小孩自身習際結構的模子。只有當語言是按照大腦資料處理機制的迫切要求去建構的，這個策略才有可能。對所有語言型態的普遍及潛在特性，若從句法規則的不同及語義的分岐去看的話可能會很難理解。考慮人類可以大量自由地使用創造性及新奇的字義而且也可以對句法類別重新分類，更可以創造性地使用句法規則解決了疑惑。外在形式及實際結構的所有方面是在一個流動的狀態（有相對的高黏性）指出了就是我們的普遍計算種類的模式而不是種類本身是固定的，也不是許多可能操作中的特定一個。
(11) The raw material from which the individual synthesizes building blocks for his own language development cannot be the cause of the developing structure as evidenced by the autochthonous beginnings in the infant’s language acquisition. Primitive stages of language are simply too different from adult language to be regarded as a direct mirroring of the input. Nor is there any evidence that the adults surrounding the child are the causative or shaping agents that determine language onset or his course of development (see discussion of need as explanation in Chapter Four and of language teaching in Chapter Seven). Purposiveness cannot, logically, be the mainspring for language development.
(11) 個人為了他本身的語言發展從生資料中合成建築塊並不能被當成發展中結構的原因，由嬰兒的語言習得中土生土長的開端可以得證。語言的早期階段跟成人語言是很不相同的，這被視為是輸入的直接反映。沒有任何證據可以說明在小孩身邊的成人扮演決定語言的開始或發展過程之成因或是塑造的角色（見第四章對需要的討論及第七章對語言教學的討論）。目的性在邏輯上不能當成語言發展的主要動力。
* This formulation might be regarded as the biological counterpart to what grammarians have for centuries called universal and particular grammar. Latent structure is responsible for the general type of all features of universal grammar; realized structure is responsible both for the peculiarities of any given statement as well as those aspects that are unique to the grammar of a given natural language.
vocabulary
peculiarity 特性, 特質
phylogenetic 動植物種類史的
schemata 輪廓, 概要, 略圖
ontogeny 個體發生
embryology 胚胎學
autochthonous 土著的, 土生土長的
2008年6月22日 星期日
Ch8
Consonants
Most frequent consonant systems
USPID
12 places of articulation
Combine dispersion and MUAF principles
Labial, coronal, and velar
/m/ vs. /n/
The Dispersion-Focalization theory of sound system
DT&DFT
The system is obtained by minimizing the sum of dipersion cost and local cost
The energy function of a given system
Explanation for a lesser role of higher formants in perceptual dispersion
Formant-based distance is replaced by an auditory spectral distance resulting in decreasing the ration between the [i]-[u]
Lower-frequency formants are better perceived than higher-frequency ones
Non-auditory argument from proprioception
Focalization plays a role in vowel perception
Most frequent consonant systems
USPID
12 places of articulation
Combine dispersion and MUAF principles
Labial, coronal, and velar
/m/ vs. /n/
The Dispersion-Focalization theory of sound system
DT&DFT
The system is obtained by minimizing the sum of dipersion cost and local cost
The energy function of a given system
Explanation for a lesser role of higher formants in perceptual dispersion
Formant-based distance is replaced by an auditory spectral distance resulting in decreasing the ration between the [i]-[u]
Lower-frequency formants are better perceived than higher-frequency ones
Non-auditory argument from proprioception
Focalization plays a role in vowel perception
2008年6月19日 星期四
Part I：Theory and Background
Part I：Theory and Background
Methods in Phonology
Elicitation as Experimental Phonology：Thlantlang Lai Tonology
Introduction
Phonology has changed not just conceptually, but also in terms of methodology
Two sources for phonologists to acquire information
informant sessions
written sources
John Ohala argued for a more "experimental phonology"
Methods require more than deductive reasoning and a face-to-face analysis
Phonology="the intersection of phonetics and grammar"
Where have all the phonemes gone?
Two classes of phonomenon are clamined to be missing
word level phonology that is completely regular
phrase-level phonology that is not broad phonetics
Thlantlang Lai Tonology
The data from Thlantlang dialect of Lai in Chin State, Burma
A monosyllabic language
Falling tone (F), Rising tone (R), F/R tone
An alternation in Thlantlang dialect of Lai
Falling tone becomes rising tone after ká (my)
Find out the underlying forms:
F/R words are underlying /H/ H HL / __ pause
R words are underlying /L/ L LH / __ pause
Contour tones:
All non-final tones must be either H or L
All final tones must be either falling or rising
Lag-IO(L): An input L should extend onto the following syllable
JUMP (UP): L tone cannot jumps to H tone
Question raised
Why is /H/ realized LH after ká =my?
originally designated as F/R
H nouns are pronounced with any of surface tones
Historical aspect: /H/ nouns have a /LH/ allomorph after pronominal proclitics
Conclusions
A structure-first approach is a means of identifying issues
The phonological patterning can provide clues concerning phonetic mechanisms
Two other conclusions
Regular phonology exists
Elicitation is experimental phonology
informant work as experimental elicitation.
Findings
Tone rules have what phonologists used to call “psychological reality”
The experimental nature of elicitation should not be underestimated.
Decisions and Mechanisms in Exemplar-based Phonology
Introduction
Two perspectives to approach language
Structural perspective
Ecological perspective
Inspired by theories in biology and history
Exemplar-based theory—concerned with cognitive grounding of phonological knowledge
Account for generalizations of languages sound systems while incorporating phenomena such as historical drift and contextual variation in phonetic detail
What is Exemplar-Based phonology
The exemplar-based orientation to sensory memory
Has a long history in cognitive psychology
Can be used to account for recognition and categorization
Two general approaches to language sound systems
Generalization
Exemplar-based
Two Decisions
To choose a unit of representation
To represent the dimensions of exemplars
Two Mechanisms
Methods for calculating activation of exemplars in response to input and the spread of that activation in a network of exemplars
Similarity matching
Exemplar resonance mechanism
Permitting activation to spread through the set of exemplars via non-phonetic properties
Conclusions
The cognitive basis of phonological knowledge to better understand the ecology of language.
Also shown on Ohala’s work on the phonetic and historical basis of language sound patterns.
Main goals of the chapter
Base on the traditional research in cognitive phonology
General approach to phonological modeling
Outlines of the answers
Must be in exemplars-based
In linguistics memory are from smaller phonetic/phonological units
Representation must be rich with phonetic details
Beyond Laboratory Phonology：The Phonetics of Speech Communication
Three scientific revolutions in the study of language and the emergence of dualism in the study of the sounds of language
The positivist codification of “historical linguistics”
Descriptive phonetics
Experimental phonetics
The behaviorist codification of “structural linguistics”
Phonology
Phonetics
The mentalist codification of “generative linguistics”
Phonology was incorporated into the grammar
Two attempts to reconcile phonetics and phonology
Laboratory phonology
Phonology-going-into-the-lab
Bridges the phonetics-phonology schism
Experimental phonology
Phonology–coming-out-of-the-lab
Has the elucidation of speech communication as its goal
Subordinates all phonological categories and phonetic measurements to the relevance for communicative functions
Area Functions and Articulatory Modeling as a Tool for Investigating the Articulatory, Acoustic, and Perceptual Properties of Sounds across Languages
Background
The F-pattern
F-pattern: The filter function of the VT contains only resonance, labeled F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5.
Main gestures of those formants
Spectrograms of oral vowels and consonants
Spectrograms of stops, voiceless fricatives, voiced fricatives
Maeda’s Articulatory Model
Guided Principal Component Analysis of Midsagittal X-ray tracings
Tongue dorsum position, tongue shape, tongue apex position, lip aperture, lipper, and larynx height
The three different types of input used in the model: seven articulatory parameters, X-ray or Magnetic Resonance Imaging data, area fuction table
Methods in Phonology
Elicitation as Experimental Phonology：Thlantlang Lai Tonology
Introduction
Phonology has changed not just conceptually, but also in terms of methodology
Two sources for phonologists to acquire information
informant sessions
written sources
John Ohala argued for a more "experimental phonology"
Methods require more than deductive reasoning and a face-to-face analysis
Phonology="the intersection of phonetics and grammar"
Where have all the phonemes gone?
Two classes of phonomenon are clamined to be missing
word level phonology that is completely regular
phrase-level phonology that is not broad phonetics
Thlantlang Lai Tonology
The data from Thlantlang dialect of Lai in Chin State, Burma
A monosyllabic language
Falling tone (F), Rising tone (R), F/R tone
An alternation in Thlantlang dialect of Lai
Falling tone becomes rising tone after ká (my)
Find out the underlying forms:
F/R words are underlying /H/ H HL / __ pause
R words are underlying /L/ L LH / __ pause
Contour tones:
All non-final tones must be either H or L
All final tones must be either falling or rising
Lag-IO(L): An input L should extend onto the following syllable
JUMP (UP): L tone cannot jumps to H tone
Question raised
Why is /H/ realized LH after ká =my?
originally designated as F/R
H nouns are pronounced with any of surface tones
Historical aspect: /H/ nouns have a /LH/ allomorph after pronominal proclitics
Conclusions
A structure-first approach is a means of identifying issues
The phonological patterning can provide clues concerning phonetic mechanisms
Two other conclusions
Regular phonology exists
Elicitation is experimental phonology
informant work as experimental elicitation.
Findings
Tone rules have what phonologists used to call “psychological reality”
The experimental nature of elicitation should not be underestimated.
Decisions and Mechanisms in Exemplar-based Phonology
Introduction
Two perspectives to approach language
Structural perspective
Ecological perspective
Inspired by theories in biology and history
Exemplar-based theory—concerned with cognitive grounding of phonological knowledge
Account for generalizations of languages sound systems while incorporating phenomena such as historical drift and contextual variation in phonetic detail
What is Exemplar-Based phonology
The exemplar-based orientation to sensory memory
Has a long history in cognitive psychology
Can be used to account for recognition and categorization
Two general approaches to language sound systems
Generalization
Exemplar-based
Two Decisions
To choose a unit of representation
To represent the dimensions of exemplars
Two Mechanisms
Methods for calculating activation of exemplars in response to input and the spread of that activation in a network of exemplars
Similarity matching
Exemplar resonance mechanism
Permitting activation to spread through the set of exemplars via non-phonetic properties
Conclusions
The cognitive basis of phonological knowledge to better understand the ecology of language.
Also shown on Ohala’s work on the phonetic and historical basis of language sound patterns.
Main goals of the chapter
Base on the traditional research in cognitive phonology
General approach to phonological modeling
Outlines of the answers
Must be in exemplars-based
In linguistics memory are from smaller phonetic/phonological units
Representation must be rich with phonetic details
Beyond Laboratory Phonology：The Phonetics of Speech Communication
Three scientific revolutions in the study of language and the emergence of dualism in the study of the sounds of language
The positivist codification of “historical linguistics”
Descriptive phonetics
Experimental phonetics
The behaviorist codification of “structural linguistics”
Phonology
Phonetics
The mentalist codification of “generative linguistics”
Phonology was incorporated into the grammar
Two attempts to reconcile phonetics and phonology
Laboratory phonology
Phonology-going-into-the-lab
Bridges the phonetics-phonology schism
Experimental phonology
Phonology–coming-out-of-the-lab
Has the elucidation of speech communication as its goal
Subordinates all phonological categories and phonetic measurements to the relevance for communicative functions
Area Functions and Articulatory Modeling as a Tool for Investigating the Articulatory, Acoustic, and Perceptual Properties of Sounds across Languages
Background
The F-pattern
F-pattern: The filter function of the VT contains only resonance, labeled F1, F2, F3, F4, and F5.
Main gestures of those formants
Spectrograms of oral vowels and consonants
Spectrograms of stops, voiceless fricatives, voiced fricatives
Maeda’s Articulatory Model
Guided Principal Component Analysis of Midsagittal X-ray tracings
Tongue dorsum position, tongue shape, tongue apex position, lip aperture, lipper, and larynx height
The three different types of input used in the model: seven articulatory parameters, X-ray or Magnetic Resonance Imaging data, area fuction table
2008年6月12日 星期四
2008年6月5日 星期四
Functional Phonology
2008年5月15日 星期四
Decisions and Mechanisms in Exemplar-based Phonology
3.1 Introduction
Two perspectives
Structuralist linguistic framework inspired by mathematical/physical theories of mathematics and physics.
Ecological or systemic framework inspired by theories in biology and history.
Structuralist linguistic framework and ecological or systemic framework benefit from each other.
3.2 What is exemplar-based phonology?
3.2.1 Background
Sensation and Image
Some exemplar-based approaches
Two perspectives
Structuralist linguistic framework inspired by mathematical/physical theories of mathematics and physics.
Ecological or systemic framework inspired by theories in biology and history.
Structuralist linguistic framework and ecological or systemic framework benefit from each other.
3.2 What is exemplar-based phonology?
3.2.1 Background
Sensation and Image
Some exemplar-based approaches
Questions and Sub-uestions in Phonology
How is language and its parts, including words and morphemes, represented in the mind of the speaker; how is this representation accessed and used? How can we account for the variation in the phonetic shape of these elements as a function of context and speaking style?
What is the smallest unit in Phonology and its representation?
How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
How does speech work?
How may phonology contribute to real world?
What does phonology contribute to language teaching?
How is speech acquired as a first language and subsequent language?
How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
What is the smallest unit in Phonology and its representation?
How, physically and physiologically, does speech work---the phonetic mechanisms of speech production and perception, including the structures and units it is built on?
How does speech work?
How may phonology contribute to real world?
What does phonology contribute to language teaching?
How is speech acquired as a first language and subsequent language?
How can we ameliorate communication disorders?
Important Questions in Phonology for me
1. What perspectives can we study phonology from?
2. What is the smallest unit in Phonology and its representation?
3. How does speech work?
4. How may phonology interact with other fields of lingusitics?
5. What roles does phonology play in language processing?
6. How may phonology contributes to real world?
7. What may phonology contribute to language teaching?
8. Who are the famous people in phonology?
My questions 2,3, and 7 overlap with the questions 1, 2, and 6 in textbooks.
2. What is the smallest unit in Phonology and its representation?
3. How does speech work?
4. How may phonology interact with other fields of lingusitics?
5. What roles does phonology play in language processing?
6. How may phonology contributes to real world?
7. What may phonology contribute to language teaching?
8. Who are the famous people in phonology?
My questions 2,3, and 7 overlap with the questions 1, 2, and 6 in textbooks.
2008年5月1日 星期四
Phonology
London：Prosodic Phonology
CV Phonology
Metrical Phonology
Functional Phonology
Decisions and Mechanisms in Exemplar-based Phonology
Linking Dispersion-Focalization Theory and the Maximum Utilization of the Available Distinctive Features Principle in a Perception-for-Action-Control Theor
Danish Stød:Phonological and Cognitive Issues
The Variations, Quantification, and Generalizations of Standard Thai Tones
Experimental Methods in the Study of Hindi Geminate Consonants
CV Phonology
Metrical Phonology
Functional Phonology
Decisions and Mechanisms in Exemplar-based Phonology
Linking Dispersion-Focalization Theory and the Maximum Utilization of the Available Distinctive Features Principle in a Perception-for-Action-Control Theor
Danish Stød:Phonological and Cognitive Issues
The Variations, Quantification, and Generalizations of Standard Thai Tones
Experimental Methods in the Study of Hindi Geminate Consonants
2008年3月6日 星期四
Methods in Phonology
Methods in Phonology
A Scientific Discipline can be characterized by
Questions
Theories
Methods
Three key elements of the scientific method
Presenting data in an objective way
Presenting data in a quantified way
Presenting evidence that overcomes doubts
A Scientific Discipline can be characterized by
Questions
Theories
Methods
Three key elements of the scientific method
Presenting data in an objective way
Presenting data in a quantified way
Presenting evidence that overcomes doubts
Preface
PREFACE
Two central facets
Experimental methods
Phonological findings
4 major phonological issues
Explaining phonological universals
Understanding the phonetic factors that give raise to phonological change
Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contrast
Assessing phonological knowledge
Five parts of this book
Delineating various theoretical considerations and providing background
Phonological Universals
Phonetic variation and phonological change
Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contrast
Phonotactic and phonological knowledge
Two central facets
Experimental methods
Phonological findings
4 major phonological issues
Explaining phonological universals
Understanding the phonetic factors that give raise to phonological change
Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contrast
Assessing phonological knowledge
Five parts of this book
Delineating various theoretical considerations and providing background
Phonological Universals
Phonetic variation and phonological change
Maintaining, enhancing, and modeling phonological contrast
Phonotactic and phonological knowledge
2008年1月10日 星期四
Phonetics Website III
Introduction to Instrumental Phonetics
The field of phonetics can be divided up into a number of sub-fields, and the term 'instrumental' is used to refer to the analysis of speech by means of instruments; this may be acoustic (the study of the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear) or articulatory (the study of the way speech sounds are made (‘articulated’) by vocal organs). Instrumental phonetics is a quantitative approach - it attempts to characterise speech in terms of measurements and numbers, rather than by relying on listeners' impressions.
Many different instruments have been devised for the study of speech sounds. The best known technique for acoustic analysis is spectrography, in which a computer produces a "picture" of speech sounds. Such computer systems can usually also carry out the analysis of fundamental frequency for producing "pitch displays". For analysis of articulatory activity there are many instrumental techniques in use, including radiography (X-rays) for examining activity inside the vocal tract, laryngography for inspecting the inside of the larynx, palatography for recording patterns of contact between tongue and palate, glottography for studying the vibration of the vocal folds and many others. Measurement of airflow from the vocal tract and of air pressure within it also give us a valuable indirect picture of other aspects of articulation.
Instrumental techniques are usually used in experimental phonetics, but this does not mean that all instrumental studies are experimental: when a theory or hypothesis is being tested under controlled conditions the research is experimental, but if one simply makes a collection of measurements using instruments this is not the case.
Spectrography
Spectrography is an instrument used in acoustic phonetics which provides a visual representation of the acoustic features that constitute the sounds in an utterance. The original sound spectrograph produced a three-dimensional visual record, or spectrogram, of an utterance, in which time is displayed horizontally, frequently vertically, and intensity by the relative blackness of the marks, on a sheet of sensitized paper. Since the development of acoustic analyses in the late 1940s, the sound spectrograph has been the single most useful device for the quantitative analysis of speech. The early applications of the spectrograph focused on the parameters of normal speaking patterns. Until the mid-1980s most of this research used the electro-mechanical sound spectrograph. The development of digital signal processing or the ability to convert analogue to digital (A/D) signals for analysis has produced radical change in spectrography. Today, spectrographic information can be generated electronically and displayed on a screen.
Electromyography
An introduction to electromyography
Electromyography (EMG) was developed by neurophysiologists, such as Adrian and Bronk (1929) and smith (1934). But it was at the end of World War II, when there was a marked improvement in the technology and electronic apparatus, that EMG began to be used by anatomists, kinesiologists, and clinicians.
EMG is a technique suited to the analysis of skilled movements in general, and of speech movements in particular. It gives the opportunity to study the dynamics of speech production, not only by describing which muscles are contracting and when, but also through revealing the co-articulation of different muscles involved in any one speech gesture. Speech sounds have been described primarily in terms of the position and shapes of the organs of speech, and little attention has been paid to the means by which these are affected. By the 1950s, EMG investigations of speech activity were becoming more common: laryngeal muscles were studied by Faaborg-Anderson (1957), and by Sawashima, Sato, Funasaka and Totsuka (1958); respiratory muscles were investigated by Stetson (1951), and by Draper, Ladeforged and Whitteridge (1959). During the 1960s, EMG was used to study various speech organs, such as the lips (McNeilage 1963; Fromkin, 1966; Lvsaught et al,1961; Ohman, 1967; Ohman et al, 1965), the soft palate (Fritzell 1963; 1969; Lubker, 1968), the tongue (MacNeilage and Sholes, 1964; Smith and Hirano, 1968), and the larynx (Faaborg-Anderson, 1964; Faaborg-Anderson and Vennard, 1964; Hirano et al, 1967). This pioneering electromyographic research into speech production involved single speech organs only. Then, several speech organs were studied at the same time (Sussman et al, 1973). Gay, Ushijima, Hirose and Cooper (1974) recorded EMG from muscles that control the movements of the lips, tongue and jaw. Folkins and Abbs (1975) studied labial compensation for unpredicted jaw loading: EMG activity was measured from three jaw muscles and one lip muscle. Tuller, Harris and Kelso (1982) and Tuller, Kelso and Harris (1982) observed the transformation of articulation, stress and rate using EMG and acoustic data: one lip muscle, one tongue muscle and three jaw muscles were recorded. Alfonso and Baer (1982) investigated the dynamics of vowel articulation: EMG signals were recorded from one lip muscle, one jaw muscle and two tongue muscles. More recently, much attention has been directed towards the interaction among speech muscles, because one muscle contracts in the context of many other opposing or augmenting forces (Folkins, 1981; Gentil and Gay, 1986; Gentil et al, 1983; Hirose, 1977; Honda et al, 1982; Tuller et al, 1981). Speech motor plasticity in the production of a particular spoken utterance, that is variations among a great number of muscles between several subjects, were also evaluated (Gentil, 1992).
EMG on the University of Oklahoma
Electrolaryngography
The eletectrolaryngograph (or simply ‘laryngograph’) is a non-invasive device that has become a standard tool in the Voice Clinic as well as in teaching and research laboratories all over the world. It is used to provide qualitative and quantitative information on vocal fold vibration, and also as the basis of PC-based interactive voice therapy. Electrodes are attached to the neck on each side of the thyroid cartilage, and the vocal cord activity is displayed as traces on a screen. The rise and fall of the fundamental frequency of the vibrations (corresponding largely to the intonation of the voice) can be clearly seen. The technique was developed in the 1970s, and is now widely used in speech science in relation to both normal and abnormal use of the voice.
Speech production and perception tools for real-time assessment, analysis and therapy
Electrolaryngography on the Macquarie University
Electropalatography
Electropalatography (EPG) is a technique used to monitor contacts between the tongue and hard palate, particularly during articulation and speech.
The EPG palate has 62 silver electrodes embedded in it. When the tongue touches these electrodes the pattern is recorded by a computer. When contact occurs between the tongue surface and any of the electrodes, particularly between the lateral margins of the tongue and the borders of the hard palate,
electronic signals are sent to an external processing unit. EPG provides dynamic real-time visual feedback of the location and timing of tongue contacts with the hard palate.
This procedure can record details of tongue activity during speech. It can provide direct articulatory information that children can use in therapy to monitor and improve their articulation patterns. Visual feedback is very important in the success of treating deaf children.
Electropalatography has been studied in a variety of populations, including children with cleft palate, children with Down's Syndrome, children who are deaf, children with cochlear implants, children with cerebral palsy and adults with Parkinson's disease. Therapy has proved to be successful in tested populations. Longitudinal studies with large sample sizes are needed to determine the long-term success of therapy.
EPG at Queen Margaret University
UCLA Phonetics Lab Electropalotography
Electroglottography
EGG on the University Stuttgart
Electromagnetic Articulography (EMA)
Introduction
Electromagnetic articulography is a non-invasive, and biologically safe instrumentation system that records and displays articulatory movements. It is based on an inductive measuring principle. Hixon (1971) and Van der Giet (1977) developed early articulograph-systems to record articulatory movements by means of alternating electromagnetic fields. The crucial problem with these devices was the lack of any correcting mechanism for misalignment between the transmitter coils and receiver coils, which could lead to measurement errors. At present, there are three different commercially available systems that differ in technical details. The Carstens Electromagentic Articulograph AG100 (Schonle et al, 1987; Tuller et al, 1990). Since 1995 Carstens Medizinelektronik and the Phonetics department of the University of Munich under the direction of Prof. Hans G. Tillmann and with the support of NTT Japan, have been developing the new 5-dimensional Articulograph AG500, the Electromagnetic Midsagittal Articulometer EMMA (Perkell et al, 1992), and the Movetrack from Swedwn (Bran-derud, 1985), which has, in contrast to the others, no automatic tilt correction.
CARSTENS Medizinelektronik Company
UCLA Phonetics Lab Electromagnetic Articulography
The field of phonetics can be divided up into a number of sub-fields, and the term 'instrumental' is used to refer to the analysis of speech by means of instruments; this may be acoustic (the study of the physical properties of speech sound, as transmitted between mouth and ear) or articulatory (the study of the way speech sounds are made (‘articulated’) by vocal organs). Instrumental phonetics is a quantitative approach - it attempts to characterise speech in terms of measurements and numbers, rather than by relying on listeners' impressions.
Many different instruments have been devised for the study of speech sounds. The best known technique for acoustic analysis is spectrography, in which a computer produces a "picture" of speech sounds. Such computer systems can usually also carry out the analysis of fundamental frequency for producing "pitch displays". For analysis of articulatory activity there are many instrumental techniques in use, including radiography (X-rays) for examining activity inside the vocal tract, laryngography for inspecting the inside of the larynx, palatography for recording patterns of contact between tongue and palate, glottography for studying the vibration of the vocal folds and many others. Measurement of airflow from the vocal tract and of air pressure within it also give us a valuable indirect picture of other aspects of articulation.
Instrumental techniques are usually used in experimental phonetics, but this does not mean that all instrumental studies are experimental: when a theory or hypothesis is being tested under controlled conditions the research is experimental, but if one simply makes a collection of measurements using instruments this is not the case.
Spectrography
Spectrography is an instrument used in acoustic phonetics which provides a visual representation of the acoustic features that constitute the sounds in an utterance. The original sound spectrograph produced a three-dimensional visual record, or spectrogram, of an utterance, in which time is displayed horizontally, frequently vertically, and intensity by the relative blackness of the marks, on a sheet of sensitized paper. Since the development of acoustic analyses in the late 1940s, the sound spectrograph has been the single most useful device for the quantitative analysis of speech. The early applications of the spectrograph focused on the parameters of normal speaking patterns. Until the mid-1980s most of this research used the electro-mechanical sound spectrograph. The development of digital signal processing or the ability to convert analogue to digital (A/D) signals for analysis has produced radical change in spectrography. Today, spectrographic information can be generated electronically and displayed on a screen.
Electromyography
An introduction to electromyography
Electromyography (EMG) was developed by neurophysiologists, such as Adrian and Bronk (1929) and smith (1934). But it was at the end of World War II, when there was a marked improvement in the technology and electronic apparatus, that EMG began to be used by anatomists, kinesiologists, and clinicians.
EMG is a technique suited to the analysis of skilled movements in general, and of speech movements in particular. It gives the opportunity to study the dynamics of speech production, not only by describing which muscles are contracting and when, but also through revealing the co-articulation of different muscles involved in any one speech gesture. Speech sounds have been described primarily in terms of the position and shapes of the organs of speech, and little attention has been paid to the means by which these are affected. By the 1950s, EMG investigations of speech activity were becoming more common: laryngeal muscles were studied by Faaborg-Anderson (1957), and by Sawashima, Sato, Funasaka and Totsuka (1958); respiratory muscles were investigated by Stetson (1951), and by Draper, Ladeforged and Whitteridge (1959). During the 1960s, EMG was used to study various speech organs, such as the lips (McNeilage 1963; Fromkin, 1966; Lvsaught et al,1961; Ohman, 1967; Ohman et al, 1965), the soft palate (Fritzell 1963; 1969; Lubker, 1968), the tongue (MacNeilage and Sholes, 1964; Smith and Hirano, 1968), and the larynx (Faaborg-Anderson, 1964; Faaborg-Anderson and Vennard, 1964; Hirano et al, 1967). This pioneering electromyographic research into speech production involved single speech organs only. Then, several speech organs were studied at the same time (Sussman et al, 1973). Gay, Ushijima, Hirose and Cooper (1974) recorded EMG from muscles that control the movements of the lips, tongue and jaw. Folkins and Abbs (1975) studied labial compensation for unpredicted jaw loading: EMG activity was measured from three jaw muscles and one lip muscle. Tuller, Harris and Kelso (1982) and Tuller, Kelso and Harris (1982) observed the transformation of articulation, stress and rate using EMG and acoustic data: one lip muscle, one tongue muscle and three jaw muscles were recorded. Alfonso and Baer (1982) investigated the dynamics of vowel articulation: EMG signals were recorded from one lip muscle, one jaw muscle and two tongue muscles. More recently, much attention has been directed towards the interaction among speech muscles, because one muscle contracts in the context of many other opposing or augmenting forces (Folkins, 1981; Gentil and Gay, 1986; Gentil et al, 1983; Hirose, 1977; Honda et al, 1982; Tuller et al, 1981). Speech motor plasticity in the production of a particular spoken utterance, that is variations among a great number of muscles between several subjects, were also evaluated (Gentil, 1992).
EMG on the University of Oklahoma
Electrolaryngography
The eletectrolaryngograph (or simply ‘laryngograph’) is a non-invasive device that has become a standard tool in the Voice Clinic as well as in teaching and research laboratories all over the world. It is used to provide qualitative and quantitative information on vocal fold vibration, and also as the basis of PC-based interactive voice therapy. Electrodes are attached to the neck on each side of the thyroid cartilage, and the vocal cord activity is displayed as traces on a screen. The rise and fall of the fundamental frequency of the vibrations (corresponding largely to the intonation of the voice) can be clearly seen. The technique was developed in the 1970s, and is now widely used in speech science in relation to both normal and abnormal use of the voice.
Speech production and perception tools for real-time assessment, analysis and therapy
Electrolaryngography on the Macquarie University
Electropalatography
Electropalatography (EPG) is a technique used to monitor contacts between the tongue and hard palate, particularly during articulation and speech.
The EPG palate has 62 silver electrodes embedded in it. When the tongue touches these electrodes the pattern is recorded by a computer. When contact occurs between the tongue surface and any of the electrodes, particularly between the lateral margins of the tongue and the borders of the hard palate,
electronic signals are sent to an external processing unit. EPG provides dynamic real-time visual feedback of the location and timing of tongue contacts with the hard palate.
This procedure can record details of tongue activity during speech. It can provide direct articulatory information that children can use in therapy to monitor and improve their articulation patterns. Visual feedback is very important in the success of treating deaf children.
Electropalatography has been studied in a variety of populations, including children with cleft palate, children with Down's Syndrome, children who are deaf, children with cochlear implants, children with cerebral palsy and adults with Parkinson's disease. Therapy has proved to be successful in tested populations. Longitudinal studies with large sample sizes are needed to determine the long-term success of therapy.
EPG at Queen Margaret University
UCLA Phonetics Lab Electropalotography
Electroglottography
EGG on the University Stuttgart
Electromagnetic Articulography (EMA)
Introduction
Electromagnetic articulography is a non-invasive, and biologically safe instrumentation system that records and displays articulatory movements. It is based on an inductive measuring principle. Hixon (1971) and Van der Giet (1977) developed early articulograph-systems to record articulatory movements by means of alternating electromagnetic fields. The crucial problem with these devices was the lack of any correcting mechanism for misalignment between the transmitter coils and receiver coils, which could lead to measurement errors. At present, there are three different commercially available systems that differ in technical details. The Carstens Electromagentic Articulograph AG100 (Schonle et al, 1987; Tuller et al, 1990). Since 1995 Carstens Medizinelektronik and the Phonetics department of the University of Munich under the direction of Prof. Hans G. Tillmann and with the support of NTT Japan, have been developing the new 5-dimensional Articulograph AG500, the Electromagnetic Midsagittal Articulometer EMMA (Perkell et al, 1992), and the Movetrack from Swedwn (Bran-derud, 1985), which has, in contrast to the others, no automatic tilt correction.
CARSTENS Medizinelektronik Company
UCLA Phonetics Lab Electromagnetic Articulography
Phonetics Website
References
Recommended books
Instrumental Phonetics
References
Recommended books
Instrumental Phonetics
Painter, C. (1979) An Introduction to Instrumental Phonetics. University Park Press.
BAKEN, R.J. (1987) Clinical Measurement of Speech and Voice. London: Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Ball, M. J. and Code, C. (Eds) (1997) Instrumental Clinical Phonetics. London: Whurr.
LADEFOGED, P. (2003) Phonetic Data Analysis. An Introduction to Fieldword and Instrumental Techniques. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
2008年1月2日 星期三
Phonetics Website II
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